Solar Superflares, Cosmic Impacts, and Fire-and-Flood Mythology

At approximately 12,350 BCE, a burst of solar radiation so intense it left a permanent carbon-14 signature in the tree-ring record washed over Earth. It was one of at least six confirmed Miyake events catalogued in tree-ring radiocarbon and ice-core beryllium-10 and chlorine-36 — others struck at 7176 BCE, 5259 BCE, 664–663 BCE, 774–775 CE, and 993–994 CE. The 1859 Carrington Event, the strongest storm in the instrumented record, left no detectable 14C spike at all — placing it well below the energy threshold of the Miyake events. The catalogue of what Sun-like stars actually do is far more dramatic: in 2024, Vasilyev and colleagues identified 2,889 superflares on 2,527 of 56,450 Sun-like stars surveyed by Kepler, implying that superflares above 10^34 erg occur roughly once per century on a Sun-like star [7]. And at 11,700 years before present, the NGRIP ice core in Greenland marks the abrupt end of the Younger Dryas [24], a cold reversal that many scientists attribute to a partial or total shutdown of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation [25]. [1] [2] [3]

Illustration: Younger Dryas and Air Temperature Changes. Photo: United States Geological Survey (after Alley 2000) / Wikimedia Commons. Source

Illustration: Oxygen-isotope records from the Vostok, EPICA and Greenland ice cores, last 140,000 years. Photo: William M. Connolley (data: Petit et al. 2001; North Greenland Ice Core Project members 2004; EPICA community members 2004) / Wikimedia Commons. Source

The Miyake Events and the Carrington Baseline

The Carrington Event of 1–2 September 1859 remains the largest directly observed geomagnetic storm in the 165+ year instrumental record, with no agreed estimate of how often a storm of that size might recur. Estimates of the storm strength (Dst) range from -0.80 to -1.75 μT, which is the figure later storms are calibrated against. This matters because the Carrington event itself produced no measurable ¹⁴C increase in Alaskan tree rings for 1844-1876, a null result that established the upper bound of the 1859 SEP fluence and demonstrated that not every historically observed great storm registers as a cosmogenic-isotope event. The May 2024 “Gannon” (Mother’s Day) storm brought this benchmark back into focus: it reached G5 intensity with a peak Dst of −412 nT, compressed the subsolar magnetopause to about five Earth radii, and has a return period of about 12.5 years. [38][4] [5]

Illustration: Magnetosphere simple. Photo: Wikimedia Commons. Source

Aurora borealis in Pleinfeld, Germany, 2024 May 11. Photo: Cavaliere grande / Wikimedia Commons. Source

Illustration: Aurora Borealis NO. Photo: Rafal Konieczny / Wikimedia Commons. Aurora Borealis observed in Norway on 2006-10-28. Source

The empirical picture of extreme solar events expanded dramatically in 2012 when Fusa Miyake and colleagues identified a rapid ~1.2% (12‰) atmospheric ¹⁴C increase in Japanese cedar tree rings from 774 to 775 CE, about twenty times the change attributed to ordinary solar modulation [6] — then the largest such rise known in tree rings; the ~12,350 BCE spike has since exceeded it [2]. Subsequent work reported the event around the globe in a multitude of radionuclide records, with a ¹⁰Be flux enhancement of a factor of about 3.4 in Arctic and Antarctic ice cores, demonstrating the global reach and single-year resolution of the signature. The 774–775 event had a proton fluence above 30 MeV at least five times larger than any solar event observed between 1956 and 2005, with multiradionuclide analysis (¹⁴C, ¹⁰Be, ³⁶Cl) confirming a very hard energy spectrum containing high fluxes of >100 MeV solar protons. A second event was soon identified at 993–994 CE, and the catalogue has since grown to include confirmed Miyake events at approximately 664–663 BCE, 5259 BCE, 7176 BCE, and — most strikingly — ~12,350 BCE (~14,300 years ago), the only confirmed extreme SEP event outside the Holocene epoch [2]. [6]

The intervals between confirmed Miyake events are highly irregular, from about two centuries between the 774–775 CE and 993–994 CE events to more than a millennium between the 664–663 BCE and 774–775 CE events and several millennia between the older Holocene events [2]. The ~12,350 BCE event lies about 5,200 years before the 7176 BCE event, and not one of these consecutive intervals approximates a 12,000-year cycle. Vasilyev and colleagues note a different tension for the superflare explanation: far fewer extreme SEP events appear in the cosmogenic record than the stellar superflare rate implies, which may be because the connection between superflares and SEP events is indirect [7].

Illustration: Solar Activity Proxies. Photo: Wikimedia Commons. Source

The solar-class explanation received its strongest statistical support from stellar photometry. The 2024 Vasilyev et al. re-analysis of 56,450 Sun-like stars in the Kepler archive identified 2,889 superflares on 2,527 stars, implying that superflares with energies >10³⁴ erg occur roughly once per century per Sun-like star [7]. This frequency is far higher than earlier estimates of once per 2,000–3,000 years for such stars, and a >10³⁴ erg superflare would be more than an order of magnitude more energetic than the Carrington flare, whose total bolometric energy is estimated at 4–6 × 10³² erg [7]. The first spectroscopic evidence of a stellar filament eruption associated with a superflare (2.0 × 10³³ erg) came from the young Sun-like star EK Draconis; the erupted filament mass of 1.1 × 10¹⁸ g is about ten times that of the largest solar CMEs, and the eruption probably produced a stellar CME [8].

Kepler bkgd.sm. Photo: Wikimedia Commons. Source

Kepler Mission Space Photometer smaller. Photo: NASA / Wikimedia Commons. Illustration of Kepler Spacecraft with labels. Source

Illustration: Coronal Mass Ejection Headed for Earth? Photo: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from Greenbelt, MD, USA / Wikimedia Commons. Source

Great Ball of Fire - Activity from August 1 CME Subsides. Photo: NASA Goddard Space Flight Center from Greenbelt, MD, USA / Wikimedia Commons. Source

EKDra TESS data. Photo: YCVn / Wikimedia Commons. EK Draconis light curve plotted from TESS data. Source

The most extreme SEP event on record sits at the boundary of the empirical catalogue: the ~12,350 BCE radiocarbon spike, identified in subfossil wood from the Drouzet River in the French Alps and compared with beryllium measurements in Greenland ice cores, has been assessed as roughly twice the size of the 774 and 993 AD events [9]. This makes it both the largest known extreme solar particle event and the only known one outside the Holocene epoch [2]. The catalogue is not saturation-limited: nine such events are now known over the last 15,000 years [9], but only a fraction of the available tree-ring record has been searched for these single-year spikes [1]. The empirical baseline now runs from the Carrington storm, which left no detectable ¹⁴C signal, through Miyake-class ¹⁴C spikes roughly an order of magnitude larger, to a Late-Glacial event estimated at over 500 times the 2005 particle storm [2] [9].

Galactic Superwaves and the Twelve-Thousand-Year Cycle

Paul LaViolette’s “Earth Under Fire,” first published in 1997, proposes a cyclical cosmic disaster of galactic origin that descends on the Solar System and accounts worldwide for the fire-and-flood legends. The author anchors the proposal in his interpretation of polar ice-core layers he identifies as interstellar-dust deposits and reads ancient sky traditions, among them the Galactic zodiac of the South American Barasana, as encoded testimony of past superwave arrivals. LaViolette further claims to have predicted the entry of interstellar dust into the Solar System about a decade before the 1993 Ulysses in-situ confirmation. But here’s the part that doesn’t sit right: that priority claim appears only in author biographies on book editions, not in independent historical reconstruction or contemporaneous Ulysses-team acknowledgment. [10]

Ulysses spacecraft. Photo: Wikimedia Commons. Source

Ulysses preparations. Photo: NASA, photographer unknown / Wikimedia Commons. Source

Galactic Center Of Milky Way. Photo: NASA/JPL-Caltech / Wikimedia Commons. Source

The Galactic Center. Photo: 2MASS/G. Kopan, R. Hurt / Wikimedia Commons. Source

Chan Thomas’s “The Adam and Eve Story” proposes a different periodic framework: catastrophic events, in which the Earth’s surface shifts and is reconfigured, are initiated when the planet passes through regions of the Milky Way lacking magnetic forces, so-called null zones, and the book presents a chronology of worldwide disasters. It predicted an imminent disaster around the year 2000 — a prediction that did not materialize, which undermines the credibility of the analysis. [11]

Illustration: Iceage time-slice hg. Photo: Hannes Grobe/AWI / Wikimedia Commons. Source

In mainstream astrophysics, “micronovae” are localized thermonuclear explosions on the surfaces of magnetic, accreting white dwarfs in binary systems, a phenomenon reported by Scaringi et al. in Nature in 2022, not a solar phenomenon [12]. Each event releases roughly one-millionth the energy of a classical nova and fades in around ten hours, as thermonuclear runaway events in magnetically confined accretion columns [23]. The 2026 detection of a burst in the intermediate polar IGR J17014-4306 — the eighth confirmed micronova system — reinforces that the term refers to stellar, not solar, runaways [39].

Diagram of a Cataclysmic Variable. Photo: Wikimedia Commons. Source

Matthew LaCroix, in YouTube interviews, calls the “Adams event” of 41,500 years ago, the Laschamps geomagnetic excursion, a “benchmark” for the first deluge and attributes the recurring resets to events “mostly related to the sun” [13]. Elsewhere he says that “the great year is 25,800 years” and that “half of that great year is about 12,000 years”, mapping the cycle onto half of the precessional period rather than onto any independently documented astronomical cadence [14]. The connection is interpretive, not derived from peer-reviewed literature. Bond events, the North Atlantic ice-rafting events that a 1997 paper tied to a 1,470-year climate cycle, point to a millennial scale rather than a 12,000-year one, and even that cyclicity is contested: their primary period of variability is now put at about 1,000 years [44], and the Dansgaard-Oeschger events of the last glacial are probably noise induced rather than paced by a 1,470-year cycle [33].

Milankovitch Variations. Photo: Robert A. Rohde / Global Warming Art / Wikimedia Commons. Source

The broader context for this catastrophism is well-established fringe literature. Immanuel Velikovsky’s “Worlds in Collision” (1950) proposed that Venus was shot out from Jupiter and in 1495 BC nearly struck Earth — a claim Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin rejected on mechanical grounds, among them the conservation of angular momentum, in a review published the same year [15]. The most important unresolved question is not whether the ~12,000-year cycle is real — no such cycle appears in the peer-reviewed sources consulted here — but why framings such as galactic superwaves and galactic null zones continue to gain traction in YouTube and panel milieus despite that lack of support.

Fire-and-Flood Traditions Across the Ancient World

The Aztec Five Suns myth describes a sequence of five world-ages, each ending in elemental destruction: the First Sun ended by jaguars consuming giants; the Second Sun by a great wind that turned humans into monkeys; the Third Sun by a rain of fire after Tlaloc’s grief; the Fourth Sun by a 52-year flood of blood-tears that turned humans into fish; and the Fifth Sun is prophesied to end in catastrophic earthquakes. [16] [17] [18] The Greek flood tradition runs through Zeus’s ordering of the flood of Deucalion, which ended the age before it [21]. In Norse Ragnarök mythology, the world is destroyed through combined fire and flood: the fire giant Surtr leads the Sons of Muspell who set the world ablaze with a flaming sword, while the Midgard Serpent Jörmungandr thrashes the sea until it floods the land, and only the human pair Líf and Lífþrasir survive in a forest to repopulate. [40]

Mesopotamian tradition centres on a divinely sent deluge: the Atrahasis epic and its derivatives (Gilgamesh, Genesis) feature a flood as a deliberate destruction of humanity. Flood myths are documented across hundreds of cultures on every inhabited continent (for example Hawaii, China, Greece, Mesopotamia, the Aztecs, the Norse and Aboriginal Australia), suggesting either deep shared ancestry of narrative, independent invention from observation of floods, or both. [19] [20] [21]

North American peoples also tell flood stories, such as the Ojibwe account of Waynaboozhoo and the Great Flood [21]. The Bronze Age site of Tall el-Hammam in the Jordan Valley has been claimed by a group of researchers sponsored by the Comet Research Group to have been destroyed cataclysmically by an airburst, presented together with the claim that the site may be the source of the biblical story of the destruction of Sodom - a link that other biblical literalists as well as scientists reject. [41]

Connecting the Dots

The empirical starting point is that extreme solar events exist but show no regular period: a 2024 analysis of 56,450 Sun-like Kepler stars identified 2,889 superflares, implying a frequency of roughly one per century [7], and nine extreme solar particle events are now known over the last 15,000 years [9], among them ~12,350 BCE, 7176 BCE, 5259 BCE, 664–663 BCE, 774–775 CE and 993–994 CE [2]. Their intervals run from about two centuries to several millennia, an irregularity that does not suggest a regular period. Fringe frameworks such as Paul LaViolette’s cyclical galactic superwave anchor instead in polar ice dust layers and ancient fire-and-flood myths [10]. The word “micronova”, by contrast, names the thermonuclear bursts on accreting magnetic white dwarfs reported by Scaringi et al. in 2022, where each event releases about one-millionth the energy of a classical nova and fades in around ten hours [23]. Those bursts occur only on white dwarfs in binary systems accreting from a companion, not on a solitary G-type main-sequence star like the Sun, and a solar application of the term has no peer-reviewed support in the available sources. [22]

A fire-from-heaven reading would predict that the largest ancient solar proton events register directly in the polar archive and align chronologically with the major climate catastrophes of the Holocene and late Pleistocene. The pattern that does not fit is twofold. First, ice-core nitrate spikes are not a reliable record of the largest confirmed solar proton storms: analyses of polar ice cores have found no clear nitrate spike around the 774/5 Miyake event, and modelling finds the solar proton fluence needed to produce the observed nitrate spikes unlikely to have occurred through the Holocene [32] [37] — which constrains how directly any ancient fire imagery can be tied to a specific solar proton event. Second, the ~12,350 BCE Miyake event (about 14,300 years ago) — the largest in the entire record at roughly 18% stronger than the 774/5 event [3] and, by its discoverers’ estimate, over 500 times more intense than the 2005 particle storm, the largest of the satellite era [2] — sits roughly 1,400 years before the onset of the Younger Dryas cold reversal, which is dated to approximately 12,900–11,700 years before present, with the base of the Holocene formally set at 11,700 yr b2k (2σ uncertainty 99 yr) in the NGRIP GSSP. A gap of that size gives no chronological basis for treating the storm as the trigger of the cooling; many scientists attribute the cooling instead to a slowdown or shutdown of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation triggered by freshwater influx from glacial Lake Agassiz, with the Laacher See eruption also discussed as a possible cause for the Younger Dryas [42]. [24] [25]

The cross-cultural fire-and-flood motif is empirically robust — it appears across continents and centuries, from the Aztec Five Suns, where the Third Sun ended in a rain of fire and the Fourth in a 52-year flood of blood-tears, to the Greek Bronze Age, which the later mythographer Apollodorus ends with the flood of Deucalion and Pyrrha, to Norse Ragnarök, where Surtr’s flaming sword and Jörmungandr’s flood arrive together, to the divinely sent deluge of the Mesopotamian Atrahasis epic, and to the Greek philosophical tradition of alternating ekpyrosis (conflagration) and cataclysmos (deluge) recurring periodically, with the Egyptian priests in Plato’s Timaeus telling Solon of many destructions of mankind, the greatest by fire and water. Mainstream scholarship attributes the fire component to combined post-glacial flooding, oral memory of eruptions and bright apparitions, and abrupt climate shocks; fringe researchers read the same imagery as literal encoding of cosmic catastrophes. The Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis, introduced in 2007 by Firestone et al., was comprehensively rejected by the 2023 Holliday et al. assessment in Earth-Science Reviews, co-authored by impact physicist Mark Boslough, which concluded that the evidence and arguments put forward for the hypothesis involve flawed methodologies, inappropriate assumptions, unsupported claims and irreproducible observations [43]. The same empirical pattern — a regular mytheme across cultures, irregular geophysics in the ice core record, and an absent nitrate signature for solar events — supports both readings only weakly, but the geophysical asymmetries point away from any single periodic mechanism. [26] [27] [28] [29]

The Other Side

The mainstream scientific response to the Younger Dryas Impact Hypothesis has crystallized over more than a decade into a broad consensus that the proposed airburst or impact ~12,800 years ago lacks reproducible physical evidence. Holliday et al. (2023), with co-authors including impact physicist Mark Boslough, published a comprehensive refutation of the hypothesis, and no impact crater of Younger Dryas age has been found [43]. A study led by physicist Tyrone Daulton concluded that the nanodiamonds claimed for the Younger Dryas boundary could not be found [43]. The Hiawatha crater beneath the Greenland Ice Sheet, once cited in support of the hypothesis, was dated by Kenny et al. (2022) through shocked zircon to 57.99 ± 0.54 million years ago, with 40Ar/39Ar data indicating Late Paleocene resetting, which excludes it as a Younger Dryas-age structure [30]. A 2025 study led by volcanologist Charlotte E. Green found that the elevated platinum in a Greenland ice core occurred about 45 years after the onset of the Younger Dryas and lasted about 14 years, and attributed it to sustained fissure eruptions in Iceland rather than to a cosmic impact [43].

On the question of whether ice-core nitrate spikes can reliably record solar proton events, mainstream space physics has reached a notably skeptical position. Duderstadt et al. concluded that nitrate ion spikes in ice cores are not suitable proxies for solar proton events, and a comprehensive reanalysis by Mekhaldi et al. found no coincident nitrate spikes in polar ice cores for any of the benchmark events it examined — the 775 and 994 CE storms, the 1859 Carrington event and the February 1956 event. This means that claims linking individual nitrate spikes in ancient ice to specific extreme solar events rest on a proxy that has not been validated against events of known magnitude. [31] [32]

The astronomical term “micronova” does not apply to the Sun. “Micronovae,” as identified by Scaringi et al. (2022) in Nature, are localized thermonuclear bursts occurring on the surface of accreting magnetic white dwarfs in binary systems [23]—a phenomenon that requires a degenerate stellar core drawing material from a companion; the Sun is a solitary main-sequence G2V star with no companion, no surface accreted hydrogen layer, and no mechanism to trigger such bursts, so the term has no peer-reviewed application to solar physics. Immanuel Velikovsky’s “Worlds in Collision” (1950) was rejected on mechanical grounds by Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin in the year of publication [15]. Sun-like stars produce >10³⁴ erg superflares roughly once per century [7]; at that rate, frequency alone cannot single out a 12,000-year cycle.

Statistical re-examination of the claimed climate cycles has further eroded the empirical scaffolding of the periodic-catastrophe framework. Ditlevsen (2007) demonstrated that Dansgaard-Oeschger events during the last glacial are statistically indistinguishable from a random occurrence and may simply represent noise in the climate system rather than a coherent ~1,470-year pacing [33]. Similarly, the Holocene Bond-event sequence (eight ice-rafted-debris events that Gerard Bond’s 1997 paper tied to a ~1,470-year climate cycle) has gaps of roughly 1,000 to 1,500 years, and most of the events leave no clear climate signal. [44] The ~12,350 BCE event (about 14,300 years ago) and the Holocene Miyake events demonstrate that extreme solar storms can and do occur, but their spacing shows no ~12,000-year periodicity, no consistent relationship to the 11-year Schwabe cycle, and no reliable signature in ice-core nitrate—making the case for any repeating cosmic catastrophe tied to a 12,000-year cycle empirically unsupported.

What We Actually Know

The case for periodic cosmic catastrophe rests on something solid: extreme solar events have repeatedly struck Earth, and the largest of them are far beyond anything in the modern instrumental record [34]. At least six confirmed Miyake events have been catalogued through tree-ring 14C and ice-core 10Be/36Cl at approximately 12,350 BCE, 7176 BCE, 5259 BCE, 664–663 BCE, 774–775 CE, and 993–994 CE [2]. The 12,350 BCE event is the most powerful known — approximately 18% stronger than the 775 AD benchmark [3] and, by its discoverers’ estimate, over 500 times more intense than the 2005 particle storm, the largest of the satellite era [2]. The 1859 Carrington Event, long treated as the worst-case scenario, produced no detectable 14C spike in tree rings, placing it well below the energy threshold of these Miyake-class storms [4]. Sun-like stars are demonstrably capable of superflares: Vasilyev et al. 2024 identifies 2,889 superflares on 2,527 of 56,450 observed Kepler stars, implying 10^34 erg events roughly once per century on a Sun-like star [7]. The hypothesis does not require inventing a new class of event. It only requires that such events hit Earth more often than the instrumental record suggests — and the cosmogenic isotope record confirms that they do.

The mythological record offers structural support that does not depend on mechanism. Cross-cultural flood myths are documented across hundreds of cultures on every inhabited continent, with recurring features — divine warning, chosen survivor, vessel preservation, repopulation. Norse Ragnarök explicitly combines fire and flood: the fire-giant Surtr burns the world with a flaming sword while the Midgard Serpent floods the land, with Líf and Lífþrasir surviving to repopulate. The Aztec Five Suns cycle through jaguars, wind, fire-rain, flood, and earthquakes as successive elemental destroyers. The later Greek mythographer Apollodorus ends the Bronze Age with the flood of Deucalion. The Greek philosophical tradition — Plato, the Stoics, later writers — framed cosmic destruction in terms of alternating fire (ekpyrosis) and flood (cataclysmos) catastrophes recurring periodically, often tied to astronomical conjunctions. These recurring structures predate modern catastrophism; whether they reflect shared ancestry of narrative, independent invention, or both remains debated. [35]

What the well-documented record does not, by itself, establish is a ~12,000-year cycle. The Younger Dryas cold reversal is securely dated to approximately 12,900–11,700 years before present, with the Holocene base formally set at 11,700 yr b2k (2σ uncertainty 99 yr) in the NGRIP GSSP. The explanation many scientists favour for this cooling is a slowdown or shutdown of North Atlantic thermohaline circulation triggered by freshwater influx — not an extraterrestrial impact. One plausible but uncertain finding bears on how such events could be remembered: Hamacher and colleagues (2023) support arguments that oral traditions can preserve environmental information for more than ten millennia [36]. That does not, by itself, point to a cosmic trigger.

The speculative tier is where the cycle claim itself lives. Whether confirmed Miyake events exhibit a ~12,000-year periodicity or any consistent relationship to the 11-year solar cycle remains undemonstrated. Whether ice-core nitrate spikes can reliably record solar proton events — even for the largest benchmark storms — is unsettled: the 774/5 Miyake event, at least ten times stronger than Carrington [5], produced no detectable nitrate spike in ice cores [37]. Fringe catastrophist frameworks — LaViolette’s galactic superwaves, LaCroix’s reading of the Laschamps (Adams) excursion as tied to half a precessional Great Year, Chan Thomas’s galactic null zones, Velikovsky’s planetary encounters — are not in peer-reviewed astrophysics. The structural parallel to precession is suggestive but is not evidence.

The biggest unanswered question this research surfaced is not whether extreme solar and cosmic events strike Earth — they demonstrably do — but whether the largest known Miyake-class SEP event (12,350 BCE, about 14,300 years ago) and the onset of the Younger Dryas (~12,900 years ago), some 1,400 years apart, are causally connected at all. If a single SEP storm of 12,350 BCE magnitude is insufficient to cause civilizational collapse, the cycle hypothesis loses its mechanism. If it is sufficient, then the unresolved question becomes why no nitrate spike has been unambiguously tied to it, and whether the proxies researchers expect even preserve in the ice [37].

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